atmega328

Atmel AVR:

The AVR is a modified Harvard architecture 8-bit RISC single chip microcontroller which was developed by Atmel in 1996. The AVR was one of the first microcontroller families to use on-chip flash memory for program storage, as opposed to one-time programmable ROM,EPROM, or EEPROM used by other microcontrollers at the time.

Device overview

The AVR is a modified Harvard architecture machine where program and data are stored in separate physical memory systems that appear in different address spaces, but having the ability to read data items from program memory using special instructions.

Device architecture

Flash, EEPROM, and SRAM are all integrated onto a single chip, removing the need for external memory in most applications. Some devices have a parallel external bus option to allow adding additional data memory or memory-mapped devices. Almost all devices (except the smallest TinyAVR chips) have serial interfaces, which can be used to connect larger serial EEPROMs or flash chips.

Program memory

Program instructions are stored in non-volatile flash memory. Although the MCUs are 8-bit, each instruction takes one or two 16-bit words.

The size of the program memory is usually indicated in the naming of the device itself (e.g., the ATmega64x line has 64 kB of flash while the ATmega32x line has 32 kB).

There is no provision for off-chip program memory; all code executed by the AVR core must reside in the on-chip flash. However, this limitation does not apply to the AT94 FPSLIC AVR/FPGA chips.

Internal data memory

The data address space consists of the register file, I/O registers, and SRAM.

I/O Registers in AVR

Each port consists of three registes: DDRx, PORTx and PINx.

·         DDRx : Data direction register.

·         PORTx : Output port register. Used only for output.

·         PINx : Input register. Used only for input.

Pin toggling with PINx: "writing a logic one to PINx n bit toggles the value of PORTx n bit, independent on the value of DDRx n".^[6]This may not be true for all AVR devices, check the datasheet of the device.

EEPROM

Almost all AVR microcontrollers have internal EEPROM for semi-permanent data storage. Like flash memory, EEPROM can maintain its contents when electrical power is removed.

In most variants of the AVR architecture, this internal EEPROM memory is not mapped into the MCU's addressable memory space. It can only be accessed the same way an external peripheral device is, using special pointer registers and read/write instructions which makes EEPROM access much slower than other internal RAM.

However, some devices in the SecureAVR (AT90SC) family ^[7] use a special EEPROM mapping to the data or program memory depending on the configuration. The XMEGA family also allows the EEPROM to be mapped into the data address space.

Since the number of writes to EEPROM is not unlimited — Atmel specifies 100,000 write cycles in their datasheets — a well designed EEPROM write routine should compare the contents of an EEPROM address with desired contents and only perform an actual write if the contents need to be changed.

Note that erase and write can be performed separately in many cases, byte-by-byte, which may also help prolong life when bits only need to be set to all 1s (erase) or selectively cleared to 0s (write).

Program execution

Atmel's AVRs have a two stage, single level pipeline design. This means the next machine instruction is fetched as the current one is executing. Most instructions take just one or two clock cycles, making AVRs relatively fast among eight-bit microcontrollers.

The AVR processors were designed with the efficient execution of compiled C code in mind and have several built-in pointers for the task.

Instruction set

The AVR instruction set is more orthogonal than those of most eight-bit microcontrollers, in particular the 8051 clones and PIC microcontrollers with which AVR competes today. However, it is not completely regular:

·         Pointer registers X, Y, and Z have addressing capabilities that are different from each other.

·         Register locations R0 to R15 have different addressing capabilities than register locations R16 to R31.

·         I/O ports 0 to 31 have different addressing capabilities than I/O ports 32 to 63.

·         CLR affects flags, while SER does not, even though they are complementary instructions. CLR set all bits to zero and SER sets them to one. (Note that CLR is pseudo-op for EOR R, R; and SER is short for LDI R,$FF. Math operations such as EOR modify flags while moves/loads/stores/branches such as LDI do not.)

·         Accessing read-only data stored in the program memory (flash) requires special LPM instructions; the flash bus is otherwise reserved for instruction memory.

Additionally, some chip-specific differences affect code generation. Code pointers (including return addresses on the stack) are two bytes long on chips with up to 128 kBytes of flash memory, but three bytes long on larger chips; not all chips have hardware multipliers; chips with over 8 kBytes of flash have branch and call instructions with longer ranges; and so forth.

The mostly regular instruction set makes programming it using C (or even Ada) compilers fairly straightforward. GCC has included AVR support for quite some time, and that support is widely used. In fact, Atmel solicited input from major developers of compilers for small microcontrollers, to determine the instruction set features that were most useful in a compiler for high-level languages.

MCU speed

The AVR line can normally support clock speeds from 0 to 20 MHz, with some devices reaching 32 MHz. Lower powered operation usually requires a reduced clock speed. All recent (Tiny, Mega, and Xmega, but not 90S) AVRs feature an on-chip oscillator, removing the need for external clocks or resonator circuitry. Some AVRs also have a system clock prescaler that can divide down the system clock by up to 1024. This prescaler can be reconfigured by software during run-time, allowing the clock speed to be optimized.

Since all operations (excluding literals) on registers R0 - R31 are single cycle, the AVR can achieve up to 1 MIPS per MHz, i.e. an 8 MHz processor can achieve up to 8 MIPS. Loads and stores to/from memory take two cycles, branching takes two cycles. Branches in the latest "3-byte PC" parts such as ATmega2560 are one cycle slower than on previous devices.

Development

AVRs have a large following due to the free and inexpensive development tools available, including reasonably priced development boards and free development software. The AVRs are sold under various names that share the same basic core, but with different peripheral and memory combinations. Compatibility between chips in each family is fairly good, although I/O controller features may vary.

Features

·         Multifunction, bi-directional general-purpose I/O ports with configurable, built-in pull-up resistors

·         Multiple internal oscillators, including RC oscillator without external parts

·         Internal, self-programmable instruction flash memory up to 256 kB (384 kB on XMega)

·         In-system programmable using serial/parallel low-voltage proprietary interfaces or JTAG

·         Optional boot code section with independent lock bits for protection

·         On-chip debugging (OCD) support through JTAG or debugWIRE on most devices

·         The JTAG signals (TMS, TDI, TDO, and TCK) are multiplexed on GPIOs. These pins can be configured to function as JTAG or GPIO depending on the setting of a fuse bit, which can be programmed via ISP or HVSP. By default, AVRs with JTAG come with the JTAG interface enabled.

·         debugWIRE uses the /RESET pin as a bi-directional communication channel to access on-chip debug circuitry. It is present on devices with lower pin counts, as it only requires one pin.

·         Internal data EEPROM up to 4 kB

·         Internal SRAM up to 16 kB (32 kB on XMega)

·         External 64 kB little endian data space on certain models, including the Mega8515 and Mega162.

·         The external data space is overlaid with the internal data space, such that the full 64 kB address space does not appear on the external bus and accesses to e.g. address 0100₁₆ will access internal RAM, not the external bus.

·         In certain members of the XMega series, the external data space has been enhanced to support both SRAM and SDRAM. As well, the data addressing modes have been expanded to allow up to 16 MB of data memory to be directly addressed.

·         AVRs generally do not support executing code from external memory. Some ASSPs using the AVR core do support external program memory.

·         8-bit and 16-bit timers

·         PWM output (some devices have an enhanced PWM peripheral which includes a dead-time generator)

·         Input capture that record a time stamp triggered by a signal edge

·         Analog comparator

·         10 or 12-bit A/D converters, with multiplex of up to 16 channels

·         12-bit D/A converters

·         A variety of serial interfaces, including

·         I²C compatible Two-Wire Interface (TWI)

·         Synchronous/asynchronous serial peripherals (UART/USART) (used with RS-232, RS-485, and more)

·         Serial Peripheral Interface Bus (SPI)

·         Universal Serial Interface (USI) for two or three-wire synchronous data transfer

·         Brownout detection

·         Watchdog timer (WDT)

·         Multiple power-saving sleep modes

·         Lighting and motor control (PWM-specific) controller models

·         CAN controller support

·         USB controller support

·         Proper full-speed (12 Mbit/s) hardware & Hub controller with embedded AVR.

·         Also freely available low-speed (1.5 Mbit/s) (HID) bitbanging software emulations

·         Ethernet controller support

·         LCD controller support

·         Low-voltage devices operating down to 1.8 V (to 0.7 V for parts with built-in DC–DC upconverter)

·         picoPower devices

·         DMA controllers and "event system" peripheral communication.

·         Fast cryptography support for AES and DES

Programming interfaces

ISP

6- and 10-pin ISP header diagrams

The in-system programming (ISP) programming method is functionally performed throughSPI, plus some twiddling of the Reset line. As long as the SPI pins of the AVR are not connected to anything disruptive, the AVR chip can stay soldered on a PCB while reprogramming. All that is needed is a 6-pin connector and programming adapter. This is the most common way to develop with an AVR.

The Atmel AVR ISP mkII device connects to a computer's USB port and performs in-system programming using Atmel's software.

AVRDUDE (AVR Downloader/UploaDEr) runs on Linux, FreeBSD, Windows, and Mac OS X, and supports a variety of in-system programming hardware, including Atmel AVR ISP mkII, Atmel JTAG ICE, older Atmel serial-port based programmers, and various third-party and "do-it-yourself" programmers.^[8]

PDI

The Program and Debug Interface (PDI) is an Atmel proprietary interface for external programming and on-chip debugging of XMEGA devices. The PDI supports high-speed programming of all non-volatile memory (NVM) spaces; flash, EEPROM, fuses, lock-bits and the User Signature Row. This is done by accessing the XMEGA NVM controller through the PDI interface, and executing NVM controller commands. The PDI is a 2-pin interface using the Reset pin for clock input (PDI_CLK) and a dedicated data pin (PDI_DATA) for input and output.

Bootloader

ost AVR models can reserve a bootloader region, 256 B to 4 KB, where re-programming code can reside. At reset, the bootloader runs first, and does some user-programmed determination whether to re-program, or jump to the main application. The code can re-program through any interface available, it could read an encrypted binary through an Ethernet adapter like PXE. Atmel has application notes and code pertaining to many bus interfaces.

Features:

• High Performance, Low Power Atmel®AVR® 8-Bit Microcontroller Family

• Advanced RISC Architecture

– 131 Powerful Instructions – Most Single Clock Cycle Execution

– 32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers

– Fully Static Operation

– Up to 20 MIPS Throughput at 20MHz

– On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier

• High Endurance Non-volatile Memory Segments

– 4/8/16/32KBytes of In-System Self-Programmable Flash program memory

– 256/512/512/1KBytes EEPROM

– 512/1K/1K/2KBytes Internal SRAM

– Write/Erase Cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM

– Data retention: 20 years at 85C/100 years at 25C

– Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits

In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program

True Read-While-Write Operation

– Programming Lock for Software Security

• Atmel® QTouch® library support

– Capacitive touch buttons, sliders and wheels

– QTouch and QMatrix® acquisition

– Up to 64 sense channels

• Peripheral Features

– Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescaler and Compare Mode

– One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescaler, Compare Mode, and Capture Mode

– Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator

– Six PWM Channels

– 8-channel 10-bit ADC in TQFP and QFN/MLF package

Temperature Measurement

– 6-channel 10-bit ADC in PDIP Package

Temperature Measurement

– Programmable Serial USART

– Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface

– Byte-oriented 2-wire Serial Interface (Philips I2C compatible)

– Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator

– On-chip Analog Comparator

– Interrupt and Wake-up on Pin Change

• Special Microcontroller Features

– Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection

– Internal Calibrated Oscillator

– External and Internal Interrupt Sources

– Six Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down, Standby, and

Extended Standby

Atmel 8-bit Microcontroller with 4/8/16/32KBytes In-System Programmable Flash

ATmega48A; ATmega48PA; ATmega88A; ATmega88PA;

ATmega168A; ATmega168PA; ATmega328; ATmega328P

1.1.3 Port B (PB7:0) XTAL1/XTAL2/TOSC1/TOSC2

Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port B pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running.

Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB6 can be used as input to the inverting Oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.

Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB7 can be used as output from the inverting Oscillator amplifier. If the Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator is used as chip clock source, PB7...6 is used as TOSC2...1 input for the Asynchronous Timer/Counter2 if the AS2 bit in ASSR is set.The various special features of Port B are elaborated in ”Alternate Functions of Port B” on page 83 and ”System Clock and Clock Options”

1.1.4 Port C (PC5:0)

Port C is a 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The PC5...0 output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running.

1.1.5 PC6/RESET

If the RSTDISBL Fuse is programmed, PC6 is used as an I/O pin. Note that the electrical characteristics of PC6 differ from those of the other pins of Port C.If the RSTDISBL Fuse is unprogrammed, PC6 is used as a Reset input. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will generate a Reset, even if the clock is not running.

The AVR core combines a rich instruction set with 32 general purpose working registers. All the 32 registers are

directly connected to the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), allowing two independent registers to be accessed in one single instruction executed in one clock cycle. The resulting architecture is more code efficient while achieving throughputs up to ten times faster than conventional CISC microcontrollers.

The ATmega48A/PA/88A/PA/168A/PA/328/P provides the following features: 4K/8Kbytes of In-System Programmable

Flash with Read-While-Write capabilities, 256/512/512/1Kbytes EEPROM, 512/1K/1K/2Kbytes SRAM,

23 general purpose I/O lines, 32 general purpose working registers, three flexible Timer/Counters with compare modes, internal and external interrupts, a serial programmable USART, a byte-oriented 2-wire Serial Interface, an SPI serial port, a 6-channel 10-bit ADC (8 channels in TQFP and QFN/MLF packages), a programmable Watchdog Timer with internal Oscillator, and five software selectable power saving modes. The Idle mode stops the CPU while allowing the SRAM, Timer/Counters, USART, 2-wire Serial Interface, SPI port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the register contents but freezes the Oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset. In Power-save mode, the asynchronous timer continues to run, allowing the user to maintain a timer base while the rest of the device is sleeping. The ADC Noise Reductionmode stops the CPU and all I/O modules except asynchronous timer and ADC, to minimize switching noise during

ADC conversions. In Standby mode, the crystal/resonator Oscillator is running while the rest of the device is sleeping.This allows very fast start-up combined with low power consumption.Atmel® offers the QTouch® library for embedding capacitive touch buttons, sliders and wheels functionality into

AVR® microcontrollers. The patented charge-transfer signal acquisition offers robust sensing and includes fully debounced reporting of touch keys and includes Adjacent Key Suppression® (AKS™) technology for unambiguous detection of key events. The easy-to-use QTouch Suite toolchain allows you to explore, develop and debug your own touch applications. The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high density non-volatile memory technology. The On-chip ISP Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed In-System through an SPI serial interface, by a conventional nonvolatile

memory programmer, or by an On-chip Boot program running on the AVR core. The Boot program can use any interface to download the application program in the Application Flash memory. Software in the Boot Flash section will continue to run while the Application Flash section is updated, providing true Read-While-Write operation.

By combining an 8-bit RISC CPU with In-System Self-Programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel ATmega48A/PA/88A/PA/168A/PA/328/P is a powerful microcontroller that provides a highly flexible and cost effective solution to many embedded control applications.

The ATmega48A/PA/88A/PA/168A/PA/328/P AVR is supported with a full suite of program and system development tools including: C Compilers, Macro Assemblers, Program Debugger/Simulators, In-Circuit Emulators, andEvaluation kits.